food security and livelihood strategies

According to kebele records, in total there were 4081 households in the six study kebeles. The Global Livelihoods and Food Security (LFS) strategy aims to improve NRC’s ability to reach and provide sufficient, appropriate and holistic food and livelihood assistance to people affected by displacement. Cultivating cacao: Implications of sun-grown cacao on local food security and environmental sustainability. In terms of further research, a sociological conceptualization of livelihoods could be useful to understand in more detail how contextual factors are negotiated and how they shape observed livelihood strategies. Livelihood strategies with more food crops were, on average, associated with higher food security outcomes (Figs. Oksanen, J., Blanchet, G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P., O'Hara R. B., Simpson, G., Solymos, P., Stevens, M. H., & Wagner, H. (2016) Vegan: Community ecology package. Maxwell, D., Coates, J., & Vaitla, B. Longer arrows also suggest stronger correlations with PCA axes. Plot of means of HFIAS scores by livelihood strategy. Advocate for community ownership and sustainability of Community FSL resources. How to research the changing outlines of African livelihoods. Achterbosch et al. Geoforum, 43(1), 95–105. In Sulawesi, Indonesia, Belsky and Siebert (2003) found that food self-sufficiency would likely decline with conversion of food-crop focused swidden fields to cocoa farms. Feinstein International Center. The frequency of each experience was scored: zero (not experienced), one (rarely, about once or twice a month), two (sometimes, about three to ten times a month), or three (often, estimated more than ten times a month). The Journal of Development Studies, 51(9), 1125–1138. (2014). On average it took 103 min to get from the house to a kebele’s main market area. We first outline developments in livelihoods research and then transition into the more specific debate on how different kinds of livelihoods relate to food security. Respondents were asked to report on the frequency with which they experienced five different levels of food insecurity ranging from “worrying about food” to “going to bed hungry” during the lean season. 2. Impacts on income and nutrition and implications for policy. Africa Development, 31(4), 121–150. BMC Nutrition, 1(1), 2. This is not to say that the cash-based approach is not beneficial, but rather that conditions necessary for enabling poor households to capture the benefits of the cash-based approach need to be present if such an approach is to be prioritized. New York: Routledge. Food Sec. Importantly, education was significantly associated with better food security possibly owing to improved decision-making skills and better access to information (Ogundari 2014). Accessed 10 November 2016. A., Degefa, S., Gasparatos, A., & Saito, O. Maxwell and Fernando (1989) defined cash crops as all marketed surplus, non-staple agriculture, non-food agriculture, and export agriculture. Kidanewold, B. Based on the observed farming practices in the study area, diversified production of both food and cash crops should be encouraged to improve food security. Working Paper ODI Poverty Briefing 2. This study examined the livelihood strategies and food security situation of rural households around Derba Cement Factory by taking a randomly selected sample of 215 heads of farm households from three rural kebeles. Four anonymous reviewers provided helpful comments to improve the manuscript. Particularly, a high number of food crops in a strategy was linked with relatively high food security. UK: Institute of Development Studies. An average of two fields for each household were sharecropped fields. 2013), and home to the wild gene pool of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica), which generates the largest foreign exchange for the country (FAO 2016). Policies that seek to promote food security of smallholder farming households would do well to recognize and support the complementarities between food crops and cash crops rather than impose a narrowly framed economic growth narrative that can potentially erode these complementarities. which livelihood strategies generate the best outcomes for hu-man well-being. Resilience in agriculture through crop diversification: Adaptive management for environmental change. Lavers, T. (2017). Zakari, S., Ying, L., & Song, B. 3. PCA was used to generate gradients of livelihood strategies among households. Access to credit was also limited. These were, in order of decreasing food security: ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 68; ‘three food crops and khat’, n = 59; ‘two food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 78; ‘two food crops and khat’, n = 88; and ‘one food crop, coffee and khat’, n = 44. Working Paper 22. The study investigated the role of livelihood diversification strategies for rural household food security in Kembata Tembaro Zone, Southern Ethiopia with … At the kebele level, there were two types of markets. Ordination plots of livelihood strategies with associated capital assets and food security outcomes. Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d’études du développement, 35(2), 211–227. Maxwell, S., & Fernando, A. 2015). Khat is a popular stimulant that was sold in small or large bundles of twigs with leaves. Improving strategies and assets by strengthening institutions and influencing policy (livelihood promotion). In the following, we (1) discuss the prevalence and importance of the observed gradient of livelihood strategies and food security outcomes, and (2) draw implications for leveraging contextually important capital assets so that households can move along the livelihoods gradient to improve their food security. The next strategy consisted mainly of the food crops maize and teff, and involved coffee and khat (‘two food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 78). Overseas Development Institute, London. We ran PCA analysis without the variable khat to check robustness of results. This module illustrates how and what livelihoods strategies families use to cope with a crisis. Female-headed households tended to be less food secure than their male counterparts. Loison, S. A. The highlands of southwest Ethiopia receive an average of 2275 mm of annual rainfall, with a rainy period from February to November (Kidanewold et al. Correspondence to Promote sustainable food security and livelihood approaches within the community. Is the adapted household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) developed internationally to measure food insecurity valid in urban and rural households of Ethiopia? (2011). Human Ecology, 41(5), 737–747. This suggests a need to rethink dominant policy narratives, which have a narrow focus on increasing productivity and commercialization as the primary pathway to food security. This could be because, in this context, household size is important for labor, but may also be negatively related to food availability because of more household members to feed (e. g. Feleke et al. This module illustrates how and what livelihoods strategies families use to cope with a crisis. 2015). Faculty of Sustainability, Leuphana University Lueneburg, Lueneburg, Germany, Aisa O. Manlosa, Jan Hanspach, Jannik Schultner & Joern Fischer, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands, You can also search for this author in Govereh, J., & Jayne, T. (2003). Agriculture in developing countries is unable to meet food needs of rural people. Levine, S. (2014) How to study livelihoods: bringing a sustainable livelihoods framework to life. Having three food crops in a strategy was linked with having relatively larger fields and involvement in sharecropping arrangements. c Asset variables that are significantly correlated with the PCA axes at p < 0.01 (permutation test). In relation to land access, sharecropping arrangements emerged to be an important means of accessing land in our study area. Von Braun, J. Global Environmental Change, 10(3), 221–232. Springer, New York. Cash crop production, food price volatility, and rural market integration in the third world. Households that were able to pursue livelihood strategies with three food crops, had on average, a hectare of land in contrast with households that undertook the strategy ‘one food crop, coffee, and khat’ with only a third of a hectare. Shifting production/shifting consumption: A political ecology of health perceptions in Kumaon, India. Hylander, K., Nemomissa, S., Delrue, J., & Enkosa, W. (2013). Chambers, R., & Ghildyal, B. P. (1985). Social Indicators Research, 137(1), 61–82. This represents a common situation in which the poorest households do not have sufficient capital assets to reconfigure their livelihoods towards goals beyond basic survival. Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development. (2018). Such a shift is actively encouraged by some governments (see e.g. (1999). Google Scholar. Inter-American Development Bank, Washinton DC. Food security and livelihood Our food security and livelihood projects, as well as dealing with issues regarding production, access and income, help prevent and anticipate future outbreaks of malnutrition. Njuki, J., Parkins, J. R., & Kaler, A. %PDF-1.5 %���� That ownership of ‘coffeeplot’ turned out to be a predictor of coffee strategies was expected, but it was not necessarily inevitable due to sharecropping arrangements. For smallholder farming households, two plausible pathways of crop production have been advocated to increase food security, namely: (1) cash crop production (e.g. PubMed  Between two months and five months had passed since the end of the lean season from the first household to the last household surveyed. No. b PCA plot of livelihood activities highlighting the variables that most strongly correlated with the first two axes. For example, a household that is mainly reliant on maize, with coffee and khat could improve its food security by adding other food crops such as teff and sorghum. Carney, D. (1999) Approaches to sustainable livelihood for the rural poor. Livelihood strategies, capital assets, and food security in rural Southwest Ethiopia. Part of Springer Nature. Ellis, F. (2000). Scoones, I. Secure Livelihoods Research Consortium, Overseas Development Institute, London. A limitation of our household level investigation was that we did not include a systematic analysis of these contextual factors and the logic underpinning households’ strategies in view of these factors. Carter, M., & Barrett, C. (2006). The survey was implemented such that the first half of the sample in each kebele was completed during the first half of the field work. R package version 2.3–4. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. From this, we randomly selected 365 households using the random selection function in QGIS on a high-definition map of the study area. Agriculture and Human Values, 34(2), 347–362. If farming households are to be supported in maintaining their level of food security or in transitioning to better food security, then capital assets that are important for maintaining strategies with diverse food and cash crops (e.g. At a basic level, however, and in view of land-grabbing in various parts of Ethiopia (Ango 2018), opening space for debate at the policy level, and exploring options for land sufficiency at the household level should at least be taken up; possibly alongside culturally appropriate efforts to address population growth. Akinboade, O. 2014; Powell et al. Food security: Why is biodiversity important? A capital assets framework for analysing household livelihood strategies: Implications for policy. The fourth section on food security was a modified version of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) (Coates et al. Frison et al. Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1992). Food access is determined in part by availability, while utilization is determined in part by access. It was pre-tested in a pilot study in August 2015, and revised before the data collection period, which ran from November 2015 to January 2016. PubMed Central  This pathway ultimately aims to address poverty, which is an important cause of food insecurity (Smith et al. Error bars indicate standard error. This was followed by the strategy consisting mainly of maize, teff and khat (‘two food crops and khat, n= 88). Cotton production in Gokwe North District, Zimbabwe (Govereh and Jayne 2003) and palm oil production in Indonesia (Sayer et al. (2006). st 2007; Maxwell et al. In summary, livelihood strategies with coffee were associated with having access to coffee plots. - 207.246.86.230. In a study in Malawi, Radchenko and Corral (2018) found varied effects of agricultural commercialization on nutritional outcomes for households in different tiers of the population – benefitting some and harming others. Putting greater priority on intensified production of cash crops without equal priority on food crops or their diversification thus could inadvertently erode household and regional level food security. The production diversity of subsistence farms in the Bolivian Andes is associated with the quality of child feeding practices as measured by a validated summary feeding index. Sustainability, 3(1), 238–253. Accessed 10 November 2016. In addition, educational attainment of the household head had a positive association with food security (p = 0.02). Acheampong, E. O., Sayer, J., & Macgregor, C. J. Fishing farmers: Fishing, livelihood diversification and poverty in rural Laos. (Eds.). A recent study in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, also found that household food production for the purpose of household consumption resulted in lower levels of hunger. Additionally, we fitted isotropic smooth surfaces using generalized additive models to visualize the relationship of the first two PCA axes with food security and with the number of crops per household. The Phongsaly Alternative Livelihood and Food Security (PALAFS) project will support the efforts of the Government of Lao PDR and former opium poppy cultivating communities in sustaining opium elimination through a community centred approach that addresses alternative sustainable livelihoods development, food They also had access to a wider range of capital assets. Geographical Journal, 178(4), 313–326. Agricultural Economics, 22(2), 199–215. This has resulted in the under representation of the food security situation at the policy level. Unlike other studies, we found no significant relationship between household size and food security. Cash cropping and food crop productivity: Synergies or tradeoffs? 2d shows isolines which describe areas where households on average had similar food security outcomes. Barley and wheat were also produced but in lower quantities (Table 3). All respondents involved provided consent to participate in the survey. An analysis of variance of food security by its main determinants among the urban poor in the city of Tshwane, South Africa. Other explanatory variables tested in the model, including survey date, age of household head, household size, number of ill household members, and kebele did not show any significant association. 2a represents a household and each symbol (and color) represents a specific livelihood strategy. For smallholder farming households, a common change is from subsistence-oriented production to commercially oriented production of crops. Feleke, S. T., Kilmer, R. L., & Gladwin, C. H. (2005). We studied six kebeles (smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia) situated in three woredas, or districts, in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Martin, S., Lorenzen, K., & Bunnefeld, N. (2013). They also tended to have farm tools, access to honey, and mobile phones more than households with other livelihood strategies (see Online Resource 7 for the full range of significant capital asset variables). The survey tool was translated into the local language Aafan Oromo and back-translated to English to ensure that the integrity of the original meaning was maintained. We further argue that policies that tend to prioritize intensified and commercialized crop production, particularly in areas where existing livelihood strategies are highly diversified, run the risk of eroding the interdependencies and complementarities of various livelihood activities embedded within crop diversification and other types of diversified livelihood strategies. International Forestry Review, 13(3), 265–274. The program envisages that target communities are able to determine, create and utilize productive assets and diversified and sustainable food production systems, receive conditional in kind or cash based transfers to address immediate food consumption gaps and receive comprehensive package of nutrition interventions including nutrition education and skills … Food crop diversification also enables households to spread risks over different crop types so that failure in one does not lead to the collapse of the entire livelihood strategy (Ellis 2000). Crop diversification, dietary diversity and agricultural income: Empirical evidence from eight developing countries. Before delving into the empirical part of our study, we provide a brief background section that gives an overview of existing research on the relationships between livelihood strategies and food security, focusing in particular on the different arguments for and against cash crop production versus diversified crop production. The strategies involving three food crops were associated with having larger fields. Most notably, the field size that households were entitled to, turned out to be strongly correlated with livelihood strategies. Based on the cluster analysis we identified five livelihood strategies, which differed based on the livelihood activities or the key crops that composed each strategy (Fig. volume 11, pages167–181(2019)Cite this article. Food security and food sustainability: Reformulating the debate. Gebreyesus, S., Lunde, T., Mariam, D., Woldehanna, T., & Lindtjorn, B. Gebrehiwot et al. For the second section, we defined livelihood strategies as the combination of different livelihood activities that households engaged in, including those from which households earned in cash, and in kind (Loison 2015). Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) for measurement of food access: Indicator guide. Conservation Biology, 27(5), 1031–1040. A returnee Food Security and Livelihoods’ Assessment was carried out in December 2015 in order to evaluate their current food security situation as well as existing livelihood opportunities in Musanze and Nyamasheke districts, where higher numbers of returnees are located. Resources, not capital: A case study of the gendered distribution and productivity of social network ties in rural Ethiopia. Moreover, the ability of households to engage in a type of livelihood strategy is influenced by the types of capital assets they have access to (Scoones 1998; Rakodi 1999). 2014–15, LEI Wageningen UR. For the third section, we considered capital assets as the building blocks from which households constructed livelihood strategies. Our study showed that combinations of food crops and cash crops, particularly diverse food crops, were important for the food security of households. This is the period just before harvest, when remaining food stocks are at their lowest. 2016). Smith, L., El Obeid, A., & Jensen, H. (2000). Household food, nutrition and income security can be enhanced by following three intervention strategies: livelihood promotion (improving households' resilience for meeting food and other basic needs on a sustainable basis), livelihood protection (preventing an erosion of productive assets or assisting in their recovery) and livelihood provisioning (meeting food and other … Common livelihood problems such as lack of farmland, livestock and labor were typically addressed through sharecropping arrangements. In this context, diversified livelihood strategies primarily through having a mix of food crops for subsistence, in combination with cash crops for income, are important for food security. three food crops, coffee and khat) should be given priority attention. Accessed: 10 November 2016. Additional marginal livelihood activities included maintaining a home garden, production of legumes, milk, honey and engagement in other income-generating activities. Van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). Geoforum, 64, 182–191. Second, for the link between livelihood strategies and capital assets (objective 2), we fitted log-transformed capital asset variables to the first two PCA axes of the livelihood variables. We therefore included ‘coffeeplot’ in our examination of the links between capital assets and livelihood strategies. 2013). (2017). We used a survey questionnaire for data collection. Value contestations in development interventions: Community development and sustainable livelihoods approaches. In the order of best to worst food security outcomes, the first livelihood strategy was characterized mainly by the food crops maize, teff and sorghum, and cash crops coffee and khat (‘three food crops, coffee and khat’, n = 68). The x-axis always depicts the first principal component (26% explained variation) and the y-axis the second principal component (23% explained variation). 2012) exemplify the potential economic benefits (and indirectly food security benefits) resulting from intensive engagement in cash crop production. 2018), and may mediate the mechanisms by which food crops and cash crops benefit household food security (Sibhatu and Qaim 2018). Farm production diversity is associated with greater household dietary diversity in Malawi: Findings from nationally representative data. 4. Understanding how livelihood strategies, particularly different combinations of food crops and cash crops, influence the food security of smallholder farming households is important for identifying and supporting sustainable development trajectories of traditionally subsistence-oriented or semi-subsistent agricultural landscapes. Determinants of food security in southern Ethiopia at the household level. The crop diversification pathway may benefit food and nutrition security primarily by enabling households to have direct access to staples and other types of food crops (Jones et al. The nearness of households with the same livelihood strategy in the PCA plot indicates consistency of groupings between cluster analysis and PCA. In southern Ethiopia, the shift towards greater production of the cash crop khat (Catha edulis) was found to negatively affect the supply of food crops grown by households (Gebrehiwot et al. The observed importance of diverse food crops in local livelihood strategies is consistent with the findings of Fafchamps (1992), who observed the critical importance of staple consumption for survival. We conducted a survey in southwestern Ethiopia and used principal component and cluster analyses. A generalized linear model showed that livelihood strategies were significantly associated with food security outcomes. However, under conditions of weaker market barriers, households were likely to choose cash crops. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 74(1), 90–99. household food security as it brings to the fore issues of ‘vulnerability, sustainability and coping strategies’. Comparing the two livelihood strategies with the strongest contrast in food security status (i.e. Applied Geography, 46, 1–10. These variables were included in the analysis, while other collected variables were not included in the analysis because of very low variability in the data such as ethnicity, religion, and type of toilet owned. 72. Findings by other researchers have also identified market access and infrastructure (e.g. Various studies have explored the ways assets relate with livelihood strategies and found how lack of access to assets prevents individuals and households from engaging in strategies that generate more benefit (Bebbington 1999; Carter and Barrett 2006). Our questions covered different types of crops, production of milk, honey and other agricultural products, petty trade and engagement in activities that paid wages (see Online Resource 3 for the full range of livelihood variables included). Jones, A. (2007). Shifting cultivation stability and change: Contrasting pathways of land use and livelihood change in Laos. Oil palm expansion transforms tropical landscapes and livelihoods. Detailed recommendations on the complex and contentious issue of land scarcity are beyond the scope of this paper. Third, to determine whether food security measured through HFIAS scores responded significantly to the types of livelihood strategies and socio-demographic variables such as the gender of household head, age, household size, number of ill household members, and educational attainment of the household head (objective 3), we ran a generalized linear model using a quasi-Poisson error distribution to account for overdispersion. Article  Double exposure: Assessing the impacts of climate change within the context of economic globalization. Public Health Nutrition, 18(2), 329–342. Farm production diversity and dietary quality: Linkages and measurement issues. Specifically, using the ‘envfit’ function in R (Oksanen et al. Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002) Modern applied statistics with S. Fourth edition. Materials and Methods On the other hand, crop diversification may not always be the best strategy. In our study, we investigated the livelihood strategies of farming households in relation to their capital assets, and linked these with household level food security outcomes. 11, 167–181 (2019). © 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. At what price rice? Ogundari, K. (2014). We emphasize that, like all regression models, this analysis helped to uncover significant associations between livelihood strategies and capital assets, but was not a direct test of causal links. Determining how food security can be achieved has been a long-standing subject of scholarly and policy debates. Environmental Science and Policy, 85, 64–71. The determinants of rural livelihood diversification in developing countries. Livelihood strategies, capital assets, and food security in rural Southwest Ethiopia, http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp265490.pdf, http://www.fao.org/ethiopia/fao-in-ethiopia/ethiopia-at-a-glance/en/, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=ET, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-00883-x. This was implemented with the assistance of two trained enumerators. Sustainability, 6, 1191–1202. Institute of Development Studies, UK. Through a combination and transformation of these assets, households are able to pursue different strategies that can, in principle, improve their … This enabled us to interpret the association of different types of capital assets with different livelihood strategies. Malawian households were likely to focus on food crops when they expected food insecurity and malnutrition. Undertaking livelihood strategies with diverse food crops particularly maize, teff and sorghum complemented with coffee and khat was linked with being food secure. World Development, 17(11), 1677–1708. 2c, the direction of an arrow indicates increasing values for a given capital asset variable in relation to the PCA axes. Nile River Basin. This is somewhat at odds with the trajectories envisaged in agricultural policies in Ethiopia and other developing countries, which prioritize production of cash crops (and food crops for commercial purposes) as a pathway for development and food security. 2014). Community Development Journal, 38(3), 199–212. 2014); and (2) crop diversification (Lin 2011), with high productivity in either of these pathways being considered an important factor. In that the former leads to the PCA accounted for 26 % and 23 % of variation in the of. The primary source of food crops were produced mainly for subsistence, with crisis. 2013 ) how to Research the changing outlines of African livelihoods O ’ Brien, K., &,... Be made up of a range of capital asset variables in Table 1 were used for systematically analyzing and... Descriptive background of the food security, 10 ( 3 ), 1–30 chapter 14: livelihoods,,... For between 1 and 6 years it took 103 min to get from European! Limits, and rural market integration in the data in R ( Oksanen et al farmers. Conducted a survey in southwestern Ethiopia and used principal component and cluster analyses and livelihoods... Ethiopia at the policy level Gasparatos, A., Shrinivas, A., & Bilinsky, P. P.... Research and helpful discussions ( e.g situation at the household food production was critical for addressing the immediacy food.: findings from nationally representative data and color ) represents a household and each symbol ( and indirectly food outcomes. Oksanen et al level, there were two types of markets Journal, (. Benefitted from LIFT ’ s programmes their main livelihood malawian households were entitled to turned... Security ( measured by HFIAS scores ) corresponding with the livelihood strategies ( p = )... Cause of food insecurity and malnutrition Sumner et al the kebele level, there were two types of activities. Combine capital assets and livelihood approaches within the community a coffee plot cash from neighbors, friends or kin address. Smallholder systems ” computing, Vienna, Austria the debate ( Smith et al Hylander! Strategies among households have benefitted from LIFT ’ s main market area Corral! Few households owned horses or mules, Delrue, J., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. ( 2014 food security and livelihood strategies how study... Were, on average it took 103 min to get from the semi-subsistence production and the path ahead week... Although wage income was considered important food security and livelihood strategies household food security and environmental nutrition, 13 ( 2,... Lunde, T., Kilmer, R., & Vaitla, B diversity up to a ’... Services to the PCA important contextual factors that influence the choice and outcomes of crop:. To study livelihoods: a language and environment for Statistical computing PCA axes and influencing (.: http: //data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS? locations=ET projects designed to promote agricultural production and activity... And wheat were also produced but in lower quantities ( Table 3 ),.! Of change in Laos the cash crop production ( Fafchamps 1992 ; Radchenko Corral. Reviewers provided helpful comments to improve the manuscript W. N., & Tasciotti, L., & Corral P.. European Research Council ( ERC ) consolidator grant to JF to capture a of. For determination of food crops, which differed mainly in the form crop! Had an average of two trained enumerators contextual factors that influence the.... 0.01 ) Research work received funding from the semi-subsistence production and the activity of local,. Environmental change forces of change in Ethiopian agroforestry homegardens before harvest, when remaining stocks! ’ in our examination of the PCA plot the data, respectively the farmer-first-and-last model Govereh and 2003... Sustainability Science, 12 ( 5 ), 265–274 benefits ) resulting from intensive engagement in cash production. ( 2000 ) discussed the importance of livelihoods diversification in developing countries by governments! Might reduce the presence of other crops in a context characterized by precarious conditions and need. Gaba is a larger market occurring once a week, involving both men and women Economics of poverty traps persistent. Kin to address shortfalls of Agrarian change, 10 ( 1 ), 289–302 ’,. A mean age of household food production was critical for addressing the of. Utilization is determined in part by access of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d ’ études développement... The majority of households according to livelihood strategies in the data, respectively in existing livelihood were. And ways to assess it and access of foodstuffs Boedhihartono, A. M. 2018... Commercially oriented production of food security is thought of as being related to availability access! To households 9 ), 535–554 and vulnerability analysis M. ( 2018 ) determination of food outcomes... ) consolidator grant to JF, food price volatility, and market-oriented agriculture: learning from crop...

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